[ { "id":"E001", "domain":"definition", "year":2025, "evidence_type":"scientific consensus definition", "claim":"Dyslexia involves persistent difficulty with word reading and or spelling accuracy, speed, or both. Presentation varies with orthography and reflects interacting genetic, neurobiological and environmental influences.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"framework", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Do not model dyslexia as a single visual defect. Build a multidimensional and orthography aware system.", "source_title":"International Dyslexia Association 2025 Definition of Dyslexia", "pmid":null, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/eida.org\/definition-of-dyslexia\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E002", "domain":"font", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Specialist dyslexia fonts do not show a reliable overall advantage over standard fonts for reading speed or accuracy.", "n":688.0, "effect_size":"g = -0.04, 95% CI [-0.15, 0.07]", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"intervention evidence", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Do not make a fixed specialist font the core hypothesis. Optimize measurable typographic variables and personalize them.", "source_title":"Does font improve reading in dyslexic children?", "pmid":42536336.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11881-026-00389-8", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/42536336\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E003", "domain":"visual_attention", "year":2023, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Visual attention span performance is on average poorer in dyslexic groups, with substantial moderation by task, stimulus type, writing system and comparison group.", "n":4211.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"risk marker, causality not established", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Support reduced simultaneous visual load and test personalization rather than assuming one universal visual span.", "source_title":"Visual attention span deficit in developmental dyslexia: A meta-analysis", "pmid":37683312.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2023.104590", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/37683312\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E004", "domain":"visual_attention", "year":2023, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Dyslexic readers show lower mean visual attention span scores and greater individual variability than typical readers.", "n":1907.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"risk marker, debated theory", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Treat reader variability as a first class design requirement. Adaptive settings are preferable to a single preset.", "source_title":"Visual attention span capacity in developmental dyslexia: A meta-analysis", "pmid":36867955.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2023.104465", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/36867955\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E005", "domain":"orthographic_processing", "year":2021, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Orthographic knowledge is substantially weaker in dyslexic readers than chronological age peers, while the difference is much smaller against reading level matched controls.", "n":7215.0, "effect_size":"d = 1.17 age matched; d = 0.18 reading level matched", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"associated deficit", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Preserve familiar letter skeletons and word forms. Excessively novel glyphs may add orthographic learning burden.", "source_title":"Is orthographic knowledge a strength or a weakness in individuals with dyslexia?", "pmid":33712993.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11881-021-00220-6", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33712993\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E006", "domain":"phonology", "year":2012, "evidence_type":"meta analytic review", "claim":"Phonemic awareness shows a large group difference between dyslexic and age matched typical readers and remains a strong correlate of word reading.", "n":null, "effect_size":"d about -1.37 vs age matched; -0.57 vs reading level matched", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"strong risk factor and predictor", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Typography cannot replace phonological support. A reading system should optionally integrate text to speech, syllable or phoneme support and explicit decoding aids.", "source_title":"Phonological skills and their role in learning to read", "pmid":22250824.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/22250824\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E007", "domain":"cognition", "year":2015, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Children with reading disabilities show group differences across rapid naming, phonological awareness, working memory, short term memory, visual spatial memory and executive processing.", "n":null, "effect_size":"RAN 0.89; phonological awareness 1.00; verbal WM 0.79; STM 0.56; visual spatial memory 0.48; executive processing 0.67", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"mixed risk markers and associated deficits", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Reduce unnecessary memory and navigation demands. Reading support should minimize simultaneous task load.", "source_title":"Reading disabilities in children: A selective meta-analysis of the cognitive literature", "pmid":25725389.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/25725389\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"registry source retained, not used for a headline website claim", "website_claim_role":"background evidence" }, { "id":"E008", "domain":"working_memory", "year":2009, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Children with reading disabilities show moderate disadvantages in short term and working memory, especially tasks with verbal and phonological storage demands.", "n":null, "effect_size":"STM mean ES -0.61; WM mean ES -0.67", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"associated deficit", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Prefer short visual chunks, stable context, visible progress and low memory dependent navigation.", "source_title":"Working memory, short-term memory, and reading disabilities", "pmid":19255286.0, "doi":"10.1177\/0022219409331958", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/19255286\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E009", "domain":"executive_function", "year":2010, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Executive function differences occur in children with reading difficulties, but effects vary substantially with task demands and definitions.", "n":null, "effect_size":"overall ES 0.57", "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"associated deficit, heterogeneous", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Avoid interfaces that require frequent switching, inhibition or remembering multiple reading controls at once.", "source_title":"Do tasks make a difference? Executive function and reading difficulties", "pmid":20306629.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20306629\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"registry source retained, not used for a headline website claim", "website_claim_role":"background evidence" }, { "id":"E010", "domain":"auditory_processing", "year":2020, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Mismatch negativity studies show small to moderate group differences in auditory speech processing in children and adults with dyslexia.", "n":null, "effect_size":"speech MMN d 0.296 children; 0.486 adults", "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"associated sensory marker, not universal", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Optional audio support may help some readers but should not be assumed to address a universal auditory deficit.", "source_title":"Auditory processing deficit in individuals with dyslexia", "pmid":32610180.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/32610180\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"registry source retained, not used for a headline website claim", "website_claim_role":"background evidence" }, { "id":"E011", "domain":"visual_motion", "year":2010, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Motion coherence perception differs on average between dyslexic and control groups, but the relationship to continuous reading ability is much smaller.", "n":2334.0, "effect_size":"group d 0.747; correlational ES 0.178", "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"associated marker, weak evidence for direct reading causality", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Do not use magnocellular or motion theories as the primary font design foundation.", "source_title":"Coherence motion perception in developmental dyslexia", "pmid":20957687.0, "doi":"10.1002\/dys.412", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20957687\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"registry source retained, not used for a headline website claim", "website_claim_role":"background evidence" }, { "id":"E012", "domain":"procedural_learning", "year":2021, "evidence_type":"meta analytic review", "claim":"Evidence does not adequately support a generalized procedural learning deficit as a causal explanation of dyslexia.", "n":null, "effect_size":"task dependent, approximately g -0.30 to -0.63 in some paradigms", "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"uncertain theory", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Do not build typography around a generalized procedural learning theory.", "source_title":"Is a procedural learning deficit a causal risk factor for developmental language disorder or dyslexia?", "pmid":34166019.0, "doi":"10.1037\/dev0001172", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34166019\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"registry source retained, not used for a headline website claim", "website_claim_role":"background evidence" }, { "id":"E013", "domain":"crowding", "year":2019, "evidence_type":"multi experiment longitudinal and intervention study", "claim":"Excessive visual crowding was observed in dyslexic children at unattended locations, spacing improved accuracy, and prereading crowding predicted later poor reading.", "n":181.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"possible contributing risk factor", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Provide adjustable spacing and reduce adjacent visual clutter, while preserving clear word boundaries.", "source_title":"Is excessive visual crowding causally linked to developmental dyslexia?", "pmid":31077708.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31077708\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E014", "domain":"crowding", "year":2002, "evidence_type":"controlled experiments", "claim":"Dyslexic readers were more sensitive to surrounding visual material and moderate interletter spacing improved vocal reaction time in the dyslexic group.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"associated visual processing difference", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Spacing is a testable control variable, not a universal fixed value.", "source_title":"Crowding effects on word identification in developmental dyslexia", "pmid":12056688.0, "doi":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70649-X", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/12056688\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E015", "domain":"spacing", "year":2012, "evidence_type":"controlled reading experiment", "claim":"Extra large letter spacing improved reading performance in Italian and French dyslexic children in the tested conditions.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"display intervention", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Include wider spacing as a candidate setting, but test it against coupled word spacing and individual response.", "source_title":"Extra-large letter spacing improves reading in dyslexia", "pmid":22665803.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/22665803\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E016", "domain":"spacing", "year":2020, "evidence_type":"controlled factorial experiment", "claim":"Specialist letterforms did not improve reading. Increased interletter spacing without adequate interword spacing reduced reading speed.", "n":128.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"display intervention", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Optimize letter spacing and word spacing jointly. Never increase one independently by default.", "source_title":"Inter-letter spacing, inter-word spacing, and font with dyslexia-friendly features", "pmid":32172467.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/32172467\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E017", "domain":"spacing", "year":2016, "evidence_type":"controlled eye movement experiments", "claim":"The effect of letter spacing depends on the font default and interacts with interword spacing.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"general reading mechanism", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Store spacing in relative font metrics and evaluate word segmentation, not only raw tracking values.", "source_title":"Interword and interletter spacing effects during reading revisited", "pmid":27936854.0, "doi":"10.1037\/xap0000104", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/27936854\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E018", "domain":"spacing", "year":2016, "evidence_type":"controlled experiment", "claim":"A reported Dyslexie speed advantage disappeared when Arial was matched for within word and between word spacing.", "n":39.0, "effect_size":"about 7 percent speed advantage before spacing match", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"display intervention decomposition", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Separate glyph shape effects from spacing effects in every experiment.", "source_title":"A Special Font for People with Dyslexia: Does it Work and, if so, why?", "pmid":27194598.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/27194598\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E019", "domain":"font", "year":2017, "evidence_type":"controlled experiments", "claim":"Children with dyslexia did not read Dyslexie faster or more accurately than Arial, and most preferred Arial.", "n":170.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"display intervention", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Do not equate subjective specialist appearance with measurable benefit. Familiarity matters.", "source_title":"Dyslexie font does not benefit reading in children with or without dyslexia", "pmid":29204931.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11881-017-0154-6", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29204931\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E020", "domain":"font", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"controlled experiment", "claim":"When spacing was controlled, Dyslexie did not improve word or passage reading versus Calibri, although rapid letter naming was somewhat more fluent.", "n":71.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"display intervention", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Distinctive glyphs may help letter identification without necessarily improving passage reading. Test both levels separately.", "source_title":"Does a specialist typeface affect how fluently children process letters, words, and passages?", "pmid":36054673.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/36054673\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E021", "domain":"font_size", "year":2006, "evidence_type":"controlled psychophysical experiment", "claim":"Dyslexic children required larger critical print sizes to reach maximum reading speed than reading ability matched controls in this study.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"display interaction", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Include print size or x height in personalization. Do not assume conventional point size is equivalent across fonts.", "source_title":"The effect of print size on reading speed in dyslexia", "pmid":16601822.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/16601822\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E022", "domain":"eye_movement", "year":2018, "evidence_type":"eye tracking experiment", "claim":"Larger and more spaced text reduced fixation duration in both dyslexic and non dyslexic children in the tested material.", "n":45.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"outcome biomarker", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Use fixation duration as an optimization signal, not as a diagnostic cause. Test size and spacing together.", "source_title":"Effect of different font sizes and of spaces between words on eye movement performance", "pmid":30291918.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30291918\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E023", "domain":"eye_movement", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"systematic review", "claim":"Dyslexic readers commonly show longer fixation durations, more regressions and lower saccadic efficiency, but machine learning studies are heterogeneous and often at risk of overfitting.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"biomarker, not established cause", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Use gaze features to evaluate adaptation and reader load. Never infer a clinical diagnosis from a single reading session.", "source_title":"AI-enabled eye-movement and emerging multimodal frameworks for precision dyslexia screening", "pmid":42404570.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/42404570\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E024", "domain":"eye_movement", "year":2015, "evidence_type":"eye movement study", "claim":"Reading related saccade and regression differences were present, while basic tracking saccades were not significantly different, supporting the interpretation that many reading eye movement abnormalities may be secondary to linguistic processing difficulty.", "n":22.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"likely downstream biomarker in many cases", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Do not design a font around the assumption of primary oculomotor dysfunction.", "source_title":"Evaluation of ocular movements in patients with dyslexia", "pmid":25804764.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11881-015-0098-7", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/25804764\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E025", "domain":"color", "year":2016, "evidence_type":"systematic review", "claim":"Higher quality evidence does not support colored overlays or lenses as a general treatment for reading difficulty or dyslexia.", "n":null, "effect_size":"generally small and often similar to placebo in lower bias studies", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"intervention evidence", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Do not prescribe colored backgrounds as a default dyslexia feature. Allow user preference without therapeutic claims.", "source_title":"The effect of coloured overlays and lenses on reading", "pmid":27580753.0, "doi":"10.1111\/opo.12316", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/27580753\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E026", "domain":"orthography", "year":2021, "evidence_type":"systematic review and meta analysis", "claim":"Orthographic depth moderates some manifestations of dyslexia, while reading speed remains a reliable discriminator across European orthographies.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"moderator", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Font and reading algorithms must be language and writing system aware. English results cannot simply be universalized.", "source_title":"Orthographic depth and developmental dyslexia", "pmid":33982221.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33982221\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E027", "domain":"cross_linguistic_neuroscience", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Across Chinese, English and German, dyslexia showed shared hypoactivation in left fusiform and inferior parietal regions, alongside language specific differences.", "n":1554.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"neural correlate", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"There are shared reading network constraints, but optimization needs script specific models and test corpora.", "source_title":"Culture Shapes the Neural Functional Alteration and Its Development in Children With Dyslexia", "pmid":42549619.0, "doi":"10.1111\/desc.70265", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/42549619\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E028", "domain":"neuroscience", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"functional connectivity meta analysis", "claim":"Reduced functional connectivity between left inferior frontal and left fusiform regions was found across task and resting state studies.", "n":723.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"neural correlate", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"The product should optimize fluent visual word recognition and language integration, but neural findings do not specify a single glyph shape.", "source_title":"Functional Connectivity Alterations in Developmental Dyslexia", "pmid":41229151.0, "doi":"10.1111\/desc.70093", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/41229151\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E029", "domain":"neuroscience", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"neuroimaging meta analysis", "claim":"Children with dyslexia showed reduced activation in left inferior temporal and occipital regions during phonological awareness tasks.", "n":356.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"neural correlate", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Visual and phonological processes interact. Reading support should be multimodal rather than purely typographic.", "source_title":"Neuroimaging meta-analyses of phonological awareness deficits in children with developmental dyslexia", "pmid":41784900.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11682-026-01100-6", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/41784900\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E030", "domain":"neuroplasticity", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"systematic review and meta analysis", "claim":"Reading intervention studies report brain changes across distributed reading and domain general systems, but the quantitative meta analysis did not find a single consistent activation change.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"intervention response", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Avoid simplistic normalize the dyslexic brain claims. Measure behavioral outcomes directly.", "source_title":"Reading intervention and neuroplasticity", "pmid":34856223.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.11.011", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34856223\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E031", "domain":"morphology", "year":2010, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Morphological instruction produced a small positive overall effect on literacy outcomes in learners with literacy difficulties, with effects across phonological awareness, morphology, vocabulary, comprehension and spelling.", "n":null, "effect_size":"overall d 0.33; PA 0.49; morphology 0.40; vocabulary 0.40; comprehension 0.24; spelling 0.20", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"intervention evidence", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"An advanced reading system can optionally expose meaningful morpheme structure, especially for complex words, but should test cognitive load.", "source_title":"A meta-analysis of morphological interventions", "pmid":20799003.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11881-010-0041-x", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20799003\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E032", "domain":"intervention", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"Phonemic awareness instruction has positive effects for children suspected of reading disability, especially segmentation and composite outcomes.", "n":null, "effect_size":"composite g 0.511; segmentation 0.571; blending 0.341", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"intervention evidence", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"If the product extends beyond typography, phoneme and grapheme support has a stronger evidence basis than a specialist font alone.", "source_title":"A Meta-Analysis of Phonemic Awareness Instruction", "pmid":35858272.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35858272\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E033", "domain":"population", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"systematic review and meta analysis", "claim":"Pooled prevalence of developmental dyslexia in primary school children was about 7.1 percent, with no significant pooled prevalence difference across alphabetic versus logographic scripts or shallow versus deep orthographies.", "n":null, "effect_size":"7.10 percent pooled prevalence", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"epidemiology", "population":null, "task":null, "design_implication":"Design for a large and globally diverse user population, not a niche visual style.", "source_title":"Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia in Primary School Children", "pmid":35204003.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35204003\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"registry source retained, not used for a headline website claim", "website_claim_role":"background evidence" }, { "id":"E034", "domain":"perceptual_span", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"gaze contingent eye tracking study", "claim":"Children with dyslexia showed greater foveal load and reduced parafoveal processing in a moving window reading task. Window size affected their reading speed less than controls, consistent with a smaller effective perceptual span.", "n":38.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"downstream biomarker or contributing mechanism", "population":"14 dyslexic children and 24 age matched controls, ages 9 to 12", "task":"oral sentence reading with gaze contingent visible windows", "design_implication":"Do not assume that showing more upcoming text is always useful. Test whether reducing visible peripheral text or visual clutter improves efficiency for a specific reader.", "source_title":"Reduced perceptual span in dyslexic children: a gaze-contingent eye-tracking study", "pmid":41370866.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2025.106434", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/41370866\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E035", "domain":"perceptual_span", "year":2024, "evidence_type":"moving window eye tracking study", "claim":"Evidence for a reduced perceptual span in dyslexic adult reading was equivocal, and there was no evidence for a smaller perceptual span in visual search, although search accuracy and saccade amplitudes differed.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"mixed biomarker evidence", "population":"adults with and without dyslexia", "task":"reading and visual search using moving windows", "design_implication":"Perceptual span should be measured per reader rather than assumed from diagnosis.", "source_title":"The perceptual span in dyslexic reading and visual search", "pmid":39155549.0, "doi":"10.1002\/dys.1783", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39155549\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E036", "domain":"parafoveal_processing", "year":2024, "evidence_type":"boundary paradigm eye tracking study", "claim":"Dyslexic children obtained parafoveal preview benefit and encoded letter identity separately from letter position, but later measures suggested reduced sensitivity to initial letter transpositions.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"processing characteristic", "population":"children with dyslexia and typical readers", "task":"silent reading with identity, transposed letter, and substituted letter previews", "design_implication":"Preserve strong initial letter identity cues and avoid typography that makes first letter position harder to discriminate.", "source_title":"Parafoveal Processing and Transposed-Letter Effects in Developmental Dyslexic Reading", "pmid":39627982.0, "doi":"10.1002\/dys.1791", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39627982\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E037", "domain":"parafoveal_processing", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"boundary paradigm eye tracking study", "claim":"Adults with dyslexia showed parafoveal orthographic preview benefits, but early positional encoding of initial letters differed from skilled readers.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"processing characteristic", "population":"adults with dyslexia and skilled adult readers", "task":"silent sentence reading with manipulated parafoveal previews", "design_implication":"Initial character clarity and stable letter position cues deserve explicit testing in adaptive glyph design.", "source_title":"Parafoveal processing and transposed-letter effects in dyslexic reading", "pmid":35818161.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35818161\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E038", "domain":"lexical_processing", "year":2010, "evidence_type":"eye movement experiment", "claim":"In German dyslexic children, fixation durations and saccade counts increased with word length and frequency difficulty, and regressions increased for low frequency words.", "n":32.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"task dependent processing marker", "population":"16 dyslexic and 16 age matched German speaking children", "task":"oral reading of word lists varying length and frequency", "design_implication":"Calibration texts must manipulate word length and lexical frequency independently because typography effects may change with lexical difficulty.", "source_title":"Word length and word frequency affect eye movements in dyslexic children reading in a regular German orthography", "pmid":20225005.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11881-010-0034-9", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20225005\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E039", "domain":"lexical_processing", "year":1995, "evidence_type":"eye movement experiment", "claim":"Long and low frequency words increased gaze duration, reinspection time, and fixation count in dyslexic and younger reading level controls. The pattern supported lexical processing difficulty rather than a unique oculomotor deficit.", "n":42.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"processing marker", "population":"21 dyslexic and 21 younger nondyslexic readers", "task":"oral text reading", "design_implication":"Use lexical difficulty as a covariate when interpreting eye movement differences.", "source_title":"Eye fixation patterns among dyslexic and normal readers: effects of word length and word frequency", "pmid":7490575.0, "doi":"10.1037\/0278-7393.21.6.1430", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/7490575\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E040", "domain":"lexical_processing", "year":2025, "evidence_type":"eye tracking study", "claim":"French adults with dyslexia made more errors and more progressive and regressive fixations, with worse performance for meaningless text, suggesting greater reliance on semantic context during difficult reading.", "n":40.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"processing characteristic", "population":"20 university students with dyslexia and 20 controls", "task":"oral reading of meaningful and meaningless French text", "design_implication":"Test reading support under both supportive semantic context and low context material because an aid can appear effective only when context compensates for decoding difficulty.", "source_title":"Eye Movements of French Dyslexic Adults While Reading Texts", "pmid":40722285.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/40722285\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E041", "domain":"eye_voice_span", "year":2025, "evidence_type":"eye tracking and oral reading study", "claim":"Adults with dyslexia showed persistent word length effects and a reduced and unstable eye voice span during oral reading, consistent with continued reliance on sublexical decoding.", "n":24.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"downstream processing biomarker", "population":"10 adults with dyslexia and 14 controls", "task":"standardized French text read aloud", "design_implication":"For oral reading support, measure eye voice coordination and not only gaze metrics.", "source_title":"An In-Depth Investigation of Eye Movement Profile of Dyslexic Readers Using a Standardized Text-Reading Aloud Task in French", "pmid":41594959.0, "doi":"10.3390\/bs16010018", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/41594959\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E042", "domain":"text_adaptation", "year":2021, "evidence_type":"eye tracking experiment", "claim":"Visual support and lexical simplification facilitated sentence processing. Benefits from lexical simplification were larger for readers with lower print exposure and smaller vocabularies.", "n":40.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"intervention effect", "population":"20 young adults with dyslexia and 20 age matched controls", "task":"sentence reading with images and high or low frequency words", "design_implication":"Adaptive reading should be able to change lexical difficulty and add optional semantic support, but should personalize by vocabulary and print exposure.", "source_title":"An experimental eye-tracking study of text adaptation for readers with dyslexia", "pmid":33580863.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11881-021-00217-1", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33580863\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E043", "domain":"perceptual_span", "year":2015, "evidence_type":"moving window eye tracking study", "claim":"In general readers, perceptual span size was associated with language ability rather than oculomotor processing speed.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general reading mechanism", "population":"adult readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"paragraph reading with gaze contingent moving windows and cognitive testing", "design_implication":"Treat perceptual span partly as a consequence of language processing efficiency, not merely a visual capacity.", "source_title":"Individual differences in the perceptual span during reading", "pmid":26059082.0, "doi":"10.3758\/s13414-015-0942-1", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26059082\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E044", "domain":"perceptual_span", "year":1986, "evidence_type":"developmental eye tracking experiment", "claim":"Perceptual span changes with reading proficiency and text difficulty, and a smaller span was not sufficient to explain slower beginning reading.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general reading mechanism", "population":"beginning and skilled readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"reading with controlled visible regions", "design_implication":"Do not infer that a small span is itself the primary cause of poor reading. Optimize foveal processing and linguistic accessibility too.", "source_title":"Eye movements and the perceptual span in beginning and skilled readers", "pmid":3701249.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/3701249\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E045", "domain":"script_specific_processing", "year":2024, "evidence_type":"visual crowding experiment", "claim":"In Hebrew readers, crowded letter recognition reflected both general lexical effects and script specific transitional probability effects tied to right to left reading direction.", "n":27.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"moderator", "population":"skilled Hebrew readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"crowded letter recognition with words and pseudowords", "design_implication":"Confusability, contextual letter probability, and reading direction must be modeled separately for each script.", "source_title":"Language-universal and script-specific factors in the recognition of letters in visual crowding", "pmid":38070387.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2023.10.021", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38070387\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E046", "domain":"comorbidity", "year":2023, "evidence_type":"comparative eye tracking study", "claim":"Children with dyslexia and children with inattentive ADHD showed different cognitive, linguistic, word length, and word frequency patterns, supporting the need to distinguish overlapping conditions.", "n":59.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"moderator", "population":"19 typical readers, 21 ADHD inattentive, 19 developmental dyslexia, fourth grade", "task":"silent reading with lexical manipulation", "design_implication":"Do not treat attentional difficulty as synonymous with dyslexia. Calibration should identify performance patterns without diagnosing comorbidity.", "source_title":"Effects of word length and word frequency among dyslexic, ADHD-I and typical readers", "pmid":37009492.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/37009492\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"registry source retained, not used for a headline website claim", "website_claim_role":"background evidence" }, { "id":"E047", "domain":"spacing", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"eye tracking reading experiment", "claim":"Increased interletter spacing did not improve reading speed, accuracy, or comprehension in dyslexic or typical children, although condensed spacing increased fixation duration and wider spacing shortened fixations in dyslexic children.", "n":70.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"intervention effect with mixed outcomes", "population":"38 dyslexic and 32 typical children ages 10 to 14", "task":"natural sentence reading under regular, expanded, and condensed spacing", "design_implication":"A gaze improvement alone is insufficient evidence of better reading. Spacing must be judged against speed, accuracy, and comprehension together.", "source_title":"The effect of inter-letter spacing on reading performance and eye movements in typically reading and dyslexic children", "pmid":null, "doi":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2021.101576", "url":"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0959475221001353", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E048", "domain":"spacing", "year":2018, "evidence_type":"font and spacing experiment", "claim":"Dyslexie did not outperform other fonts, while increased letter spacing improved performance and could remove disadvantages seen with less readable fonts.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"intervention effect", "population":"children with and without dyslexia", "task":"reading across font and spacing conditions", "design_implication":"Treat font form and spacing as separable factors. Spacing can sometimes compensate for poor font choices but should not justify a poor base design.", "source_title":"Influence of increased letter spacing and font type on the reading ability of dyslexic children", "pmid":30094714.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30094714\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E049", "domain":"font", "year":2013, "evidence_type":"within subject eye tracking experiment", "claim":"In one study of adults with dyslexia, sans serif, monospaced, and roman styles were associated with better performance than serif, proportional, and italic alternatives. These findings are not sufficient to establish universal font rules.", "n":48.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"intervention evidence, limited replication", "population":"48 participants with dyslexia", "task":"reading 12 texts in 12 fonts with eye tracking", "design_implication":"Use sans serif and upright styles as useful starting priors, not hard constraints. Re test within each reader and language.", "source_title":"Good fonts for dyslexia", "pmid":null, "doi":"10.1145\/2513383.2513447", "url":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2513383.2513447", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E050", "domain":"font", "year":2005, "evidence_type":"controlled font feature experiment", "claim":"When serif size was isolated experimentally, serif presence produced little or no meaningful difference in continuous reading speed in normally sighted readers.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general reading intervention evidence", "population":"general readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"size thresholds and continuous reading with controlled serif size", "design_implication":"Do not encode serif versus sans serif as a universal causal rule. Specific glyph geometry matters more than the category label alone.", "source_title":"Serifs and font legibility", "pmid":16099015.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC4612630\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E051", "domain":"font_size", "year":2011, "evidence_type":"vision science review", "claim":"Reading speed typically rises with print size until a critical print size and then plateaus across a broad fluent range. Angular x height is a more meaningful visual measure than nominal point size.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"general reading mechanism", "population":"general reading and vision science evidence", "task":"review of print size and reading performance", "design_implication":"Store and calibrate visual angle and x height, not only CSS pixels or points.", "source_title":"Does print size matter for reading? A review of findings from vision science and typography", "pmid":21828237.0, "doi":"10.1167\/11.5.8", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21828237\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E052", "domain":"display", "year":2007, "evidence_type":"controlled display experiment", "claim":"Proofreading performance was better with dark text on a light background than the reverse under the tested conditions, while color contrast could not substitute for luminance contrast.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general display intervention evidence", "population":"general adult readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"proofreading across polarity, illumination, and chromaticity conditions", "design_implication":"Maintain strong luminance contrast. Positive polarity is a useful default prior but should remain user configurable.", "source_title":"Text-background polarity affects performance irrespective of ambient illumination and colour contrast", "pmid":17510822.0, "doi":"10.1080\/00140130701306413", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/17510822\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E053", "domain":"display", "year":2009, "evidence_type":"controlled display experiment", "claim":"When overall display luminance was equated, the usual positive polarity advantage disappeared, suggesting that luminance is an important mechanism behind polarity effects.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general display mechanism", "population":"general adult readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"reading with independent manipulation of polarity and luminance", "design_implication":"Model actual luminance and contrast rather than treating dark mode versus light mode as a categorical rule.", "source_title":"The advantage of positive text-background polarity is due to high display luminance", "pmid":19562598.0, "doi":"10.1080\/00140130802641635", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/19562598\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E054", "domain":"display", "year":2017, "evidence_type":"legibility threshold experiment", "claim":"Negative polarity under dark ambient illumination produced worse glance like word legibility, with effects interacting with letter size and illumination.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general display intervention evidence", "population":"general readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"lexical decision under polarity, size, and ambient illumination manipulations", "design_implication":"Reading presets should account for ambient conditions and effective size, not just background color.", "source_title":"Effects of ambient illumination, contrast polarity, and letter size on text legibility under glance-like reading", "pmid":28166901.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2016.11.001", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28166901\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E055", "domain":"color", "year":2021, "evidence_type":"multimodal physiological reading experiment", "claim":"A small study found some color conditions associated with shorter reading duration in dyslexic children, but the design does not override higher level systematic review evidence showing no general treatment effect for colored overlays.", "n":36.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"low_moderate", "causal_status":"possible individual preference effect", "population":"18 dyslexic and 18 control children ages 8 to 12", "task":"reading across 13 background and overlay color combinations with EEG, HRV, EDA, and eye tracking", "design_implication":"Color can be personalized for comfort or tested empirically, but must not be prescribed as a dyslexia treatment.", "source_title":"The Relation between Physiological Parameters and Colour Modifications in Text Background and Overlay during Reading", "pmid":33922926.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33922926\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E056", "domain":"font_variability", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"variable typeface design and empirical testing study", "claim":"A recent variable typeface study reported that not all conventional dyslexia font features improved performance and argued for adjustable simple to complex letterforms and individual adaptation.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"design intervention evidence", "population":"readers evaluated with the Dixi variable typeface", "task":"variable typeface development and testing", "design_implication":"Build variability into the font architecture rather than shipping one immutable dyslexia style.", "source_title":"Designing a Variable Typeface for Dyslexia-Friendly Reading", "pmid":null, "doi":"10.25027\/ag.34.2.1", "url":"https:\/\/hrcak.srce.hr\/en\/clanak\/502779", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E057", "domain":"cross_linguistic", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"systematic review and meta analysis", "claim":"In Chinese children with developmental dyslexia, large group differences were reported in morphological awareness, phonological awareness, orthographic awareness, and rapid automatized naming, with moderate short term memory differences.", "n":null, "effect_size":"morphology g -1.14; phonology g -1.14; orthography g -0.99; RAN g 0.93; STM g -0.59", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"cross linguistic correlates", "population":"Chinese children across 50 studies and 185 effect sizes", "task":"systematic review of linguistic correlates", "design_implication":"A Latin alphabet font model cannot be generalized to Chinese. Morphology, character structure, and orthographic awareness require script specific logic.", "source_title":"Linguistic correlates of Chinese children with developmental dyslexia", "pmid":41678943.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.jcomdis.2026.106629", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/41678943\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E058", "domain":"cross_linguistic", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"systematic review and meta analysis", "claim":"Among Chinese children with developmental dyslexia, no single cognitive deficit characterized all readers. Rapid automatized naming deficits had the highest pooled prevalence among measured skills at about 44 percent.", "n":null, "effect_size":"RAN deficit prevalence about 44 percent", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"heterogeneity evidence", "population":"Chinese children across 22 studies", "task":"systematic review of cognitive skill deficit prevalence", "design_implication":"Never assume a universal cognitive subtype. The engine should infer useful settings from observed reading response, not diagnosis labels.", "source_title":"The Percentages of Cognitive Skills Deficits among Chinese Children with Developmental Dyslexia", "pmid":35624935.0, "doi":"10.3390\/brainsci12050548", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35624935\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E059", "domain":"orthography", "year":2019, "evidence_type":"meta analysis", "claim":"In highly consistent alphabetic orthographies, reading level matched dyslexic children did not consistently differ in rapid naming, phonological memory, or auditory temporal processing, while phoneme manipulation differences remained.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"moderator and theory constraint", "population":"children younger than 13 across 21 studies in consistent European orthographies", "task":"reading level matched meta analysis", "design_implication":"Orthographic consistency changes which deficits are most discriminative. Parameter priors must be language aware.", "source_title":"A meta-analysis of reading-level match dyslexia studies in consistent alphabetic orthographies", "pmid":31664608.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31664608\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E060", "domain":"rapid_naming", "year":2025, "evidence_type":"scholarly review", "claim":"Rapid automatized naming is an important indicator of reading fluency difficulty, but it reflects coordinated processes rather than a single elementary deficit.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"predictor and composite processing marker", "population":"review across reading development and dyslexia research", "task":"review of RAN constructs", "design_implication":"Use naming fluency to characterize reading automaticity, not as a direct typography prescription.", "source_title":"Rapid automatized naming: what it is, what it is not, and why it matters", "pmid":39078510.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s11881-024-00312-z", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39078510\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E061", "domain":"word_shape", "year":2002, "evidence_type":"lexical decision experiments", "claim":"Distorting overall word outline affected lower frequency words more strongly, but results did not support a simple whole word shape theory of recognition.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general visual word recognition evidence", "population":"general readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"lexical decision with size alternation and case manipulations", "design_implication":"Preserve local letter identity and orthographic coding rather than designing primarily around global word silhouettes.", "source_title":"Does whole-word shape play a role in visual word recognition?", "pmid":12201337.0, "doi":"10.3758\/bf03194745", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/12201337\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E062", "domain":"font_width", "year":2021, "evidence_type":"eye tracking typography experiment", "claim":"Large changes in font width altered fixation and saccade patterns even when overall reading speed remained similar, indicating eye movement tradeoffs rather than a simple wider is better rule.", "n":25.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general typography intervention evidence", "population":"general adult readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"reading four widths from one font family on high resolution displays", "design_implication":"Font width should be optimized jointly with spacing and line length. Eye movement changes alone are not proof of improved reading.", "source_title":"The effect of font width on eye movements during reading", "pmid":34225106.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2021.103523", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34225106\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E063", "domain":"font_emphasis", "year":2025, "evidence_type":"eye tracking reading experiment", "claim":"Bolding the first half of every word, as used by Bionic Reading style systems, did not improve reading and produced costs compared with normal unbolded text.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general typography intervention evidence", "population":"general readers, with individual difference analyses", "task":"paragraph reading under five bolding conditions", "design_implication":"Do not assume that partial bolding guides optimal fixation or word recognition. Any emphasis algorithm needs direct evidence.", "source_title":"To boldly go where no text has gone before: The effects of boldface letters on eye movements in reading", "pmid":40240742.0, "doi":"10.3758\/s13414-025-03067-w", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/40240742\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E064", "domain":"display_quality", "year":2012, "evidence_type":"extended reading experiment", "claim":"Extended reading on modern LCD and electronic ink displays produced similar subjective and objective fatigue when image quality was comparable, suggesting display quality matters more than technology label alone.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general display intervention evidence", "population":"adult readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"several hours of reading with fatigue, speed, eye movement, and pupil measures", "design_implication":"Optimize resolution, rendering, contrast, and visual size instead of assuming electronic ink is inherently superior.", "source_title":"Reading on LCD vs e-Ink displays: effects on fatigue and visual strain", "pmid":22762257.0, "doi":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2012.00928.x", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/22762257\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E065", "domain":"display_quality", "year":1989, "evidence_type":"reading fatigue and eye movement experiment", "claim":"Higher display resolution particularly improved readability for very small characters, while differences were minimal for sufficiently large characters.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general display intervention evidence", "population":"adult readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"one hour reading and readability testing on displays with different resolution", "design_implication":"Rendering quality becomes especially important near or below critical print size. Small text should trigger stronger anti aliasing and minimum size safeguards.", "source_title":"Effects of VDT resolution on visual fatigue and readability", "pmid":2776740.0, "doi":"10.1080\/00140138908966135", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/2776740\/", "transfer_scope":"mixed or general reading evidence", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E066", "domain":"web_typography", "year":2019, "evidence_type":"eye tracking clinical trial", "claim":"Multiple realistic webpage typographic variables affected eye movements and reading performance across children and adults with and without dyslexia, with many effects shared across groups.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"intervention evidence", "population":"children and adults, typical readers and readers with dyslexia", "task":"reading realistic webpages with multiple typographic variables", "design_implication":"Many good readability changes are universal rather than dyslexia exclusive. Build a high quality reading system first, then personalize where group or individual effects diverge.", "source_title":"Investigating Effects of Typographic Variables on Webpage Reading Through Eye Movements", "pmid":31481744.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31481744\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"not encoded", "risk_note":"Interpret according to study design, population, language, and task.", "audit_date":"2026-10-05", "identifier_integrity":"checked", "external_recheck":"design critical source rechecked against public indexed record", "website_claim_role":"headline or design rationale" }, { "id":"E067", "domain":"visual_oculomotor", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"systematic review and meta analysis", "claim":"Across 26 studies, dyslexic groups showed several binocular and oculomotor differences, including more fixations, longer fixation durations, more regressions and reduced saccade amplitude, while visual acuity and refractive error did not significantly differ.", "n":null, "effect_size":"multiple pooled outcomes", "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"associated visual and oculomotor differences, clinical relevance still being clarified", "population":"children and individuals with developmental dyslexia in case control studies", "task":"visual and oculomotor assessment", "design_implication":"Use eye movement and visual effort measures as validation signals, but do not design the font around a claim that dyslexia is a primary acuity or refractive disorder.", "source_title":"Visual and Oculomotor Function in Developmental Dyslexia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis", "pmid":41801664.0, "doi":"10.1007\/s44402-026-00044-0", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/41801664\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"systematic review and meta analysis", "risk_note":"Observational evidence cannot by itself establish causal direction.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E068", "domain":"visual_word_recognition", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"masked priming experiments", "claim":"Recent visual word recognition experiments continue to show that letter identity and letter order are constrained by visual similarity during early processing.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general visual word recognition mechanism", "population":"skilled adult readers", "task":"masked priming with visual similarity and letter transpositions", "design_implication":"Protect distinctive local letter identity cues and avoid unnecessary visual similarity among confusable glyphs.", "source_title":"Are letter identity and letter order encoding functionally separable? Evidence from masked priming with visual similarity and letter transpositions", "pmid":42649345.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/42649345\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"new 2026 experimental evidence", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific. Used only as a general letter recognition constraint.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E069", "domain":"font_familiarity", "year":2021, "evidence_type":"eye tracking study", "claim":"Typeface familiarity influenced reading speed, supporting the value of familiar letter structures rather than novelty for its own sake.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general reading intervention evidence", "population":"general readers", "task":"on screen reading with exposure to designed typefaces", "design_implication":"Preserve familiar humanist Latin skeletons and make differentiation local rather than globally unusual.", "source_title":"You read best what you read most: An eye tracking study", "pmid":33828793.0, "doi":null, "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33828793\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"individual experimental study", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific and familiarity can be learned with exposure.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E070", "domain":"letter_recognition", "year":2014, "evidence_type":"ERP experiment", "claim":"Typeface fluency affected both early and later stages of letter processing even when the task required abstract letter identity.", "n":26.0, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general letter recognition mechanism", "population":"adult readers", "task":"one back letter identity task with fluent and disfluent typefaces", "design_implication":"Avoid unnecessarily disfluent or decorative letter construction in a reading typeface.", "source_title":"Investigating letter recognition in the brain by varying typeface: an event-related potential study", "pmid":24880492.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2014.05.001", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/24880492\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"individual experimental study", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E071", "domain":"letter_similarity", "year":2018, "evidence_type":"boundary paradigm eye tracking study", "claim":"Visual letter similarity in parafoveal preview measurably affected early word processing during sentence reading.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general visual word recognition mechanism", "population":"adult readers", "task":"sentence reading using visually similar and dissimilar letter substitutions", "design_implication":"Treat visual confusability as a genuine variable and preserve high identity contrast in critical glyph pairs.", "source_title":"Visual letter similarity effects during sentence reading: Evidence from the boundary technique", "pmid":30119047.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2018.08.007", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30119047\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"individual experimental study", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E072", "domain":"letter_features", "year":2016, "evidence_type":"lexical decision experiments", "claim":"Different components of letters contribute unequally to word identification, with midsegments and junction structure carrying important information.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general visual word recognition mechanism", "population":"adult readers", "task":"delayed segment lexical decision", "design_implication":"Do not concentrate all differentiation in decorative terminals. Preserve informative internal structure, junctions and midsegments.", "source_title":"The role of letter features in visual-word recognition: Evidence from a delayed segment technique", "pmid":27289422.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2016.05.016", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/27289422\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"two experiments", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E073", "domain":"typographic_rhythm", "year":2020, "evidence_type":"typography and visual comfort study", "claim":"Font design, weight, x height relative to line separation, expansion and compression can alter spatial regularity measures associated with likely reading speed and visual comfort.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general typography mechanism", "population":"general readers", "task":"typographic analysis and reader preference", "design_implication":"Avoid overly periodic vertical stroke rhythms and treat weight, x height and line spacing as interacting variables.", "source_title":"The Influence of Typography on Algorithms that Predict the Speed and Comfort of Reading", "pmid":32178260.0, "doi":"10.3390\/vision4010018", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/32178260\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"multi component study", "risk_note":"Algorithms are predictive proxies, not direct dyslexia outcomes.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E074", "domain":"display_legibility", "year":1998, "evidence_type":"controlled reading experiment", "claim":"At high luminance there was no reading rate difference between the serif and sans serif fonts tested, while low luminance favoured the sans serif font in that experiment.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"general display interaction", "population":"general readers", "task":"RSVP reading under high and low luminance", "design_implication":"Screen and luminance conditions can interact with font design. Protect simple outlines and sufficient acuity reserve at small sizes.", "source_title":"High and low luminance letters, acuity reserve, and font effects on reading speed", "pmid":12116700.0, "doi":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(98)00116-3", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/12116700\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"individual controlled study", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific and used RSVP.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E075", "domain":"color", "year":2018, "evidence_type":"overview of systematic reviews", "claim":"Across systematic reviews there is not a reliable evidence base for recommending coloured overlays or lenses for reading difficulty or discomfort.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"intervention evidence", "population":"adults and children with reading difficulties across reviews", "task":"overview of systematic reviews", "design_implication":"Keep color as a comfort and brand preference, not a dyslexia treatment claim.", "source_title":"Efficacy of coloured overlays and lenses for treating reading difficulty: an overview of systematic reviews", "pmid":29633383.0, "doi":"10.1111\/cxo.12676", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29633383\/", "transfer_scope":"reading difficulty evidence", "replication_status":"overview of systematic reviews", "risk_note":"Some individual studies report effects, but the review level evidence remains insufficient.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E076", "domain":"letter_identification", "year":2011, "evidence_type":"review plus experiments", "claim":"Letter identification performance reflects perceivability, visual similarity and response bias, providing a framework for evaluating confusable characters.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general visual letter recognition mechanism", "population":"adult observers", "task":"masked letter identification", "design_implication":"Treat confusability pairs as measurable recognition problems rather than aesthetic preferences.", "source_title":"Alphabetic letter identification: effects of perceivability, similarity, and bias", "pmid":22036587.0, "doi":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2011.09.014", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/22036587\/", "transfer_scope":"general visual recognition evidence", "replication_status":"review plus two experiments", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E077", "domain":"spacing", "year":2024, "evidence_type":"controlled reading experiment", "claim":"Increasing inter-word spacing improved standardized reading comprehension in students with dyslexia and reduced reported letter and word migration errors in the tested texts.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate", "causal_status":"intervention effect", "population":"students with and without dyslexia", "task":"standardized narrative reading under standard versus increased word spacing", "design_implication":"Increase word boundary salience cautiously in the Reading cut while avoiding exaggerated global tracking.", "source_title":"Increasing inter-word spacing reduces migration errors and improves reading comprehension in students with dyslexia", "pmid":"39139062", "doi":"10.1002\/dys.1787", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39139062\/", "transfer_scope":"dyslexia specific", "replication_status":"single small study, requires replication", "risk_note":"Small study. Supports a cautious direction rather than a universal optimum.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E078", "domain":"letter_recognition", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"controlled psychophysical experiment", "claim":"Closed apertures impaired identification of letters including a, c, e, r, s, t and f, including parafoveal conditions and crowding.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"general visual recognition mechanism", "population":"general readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"brief letter recognition with and without flankers", "design_implication":"Protect open apertures and counters, especially in the Reading cut and heavier weights.", "source_title":"Closed letter counters impair recognition", "pmid":"35217404", "doi":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2022.103709", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35217404\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"controlled experimental evidence", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific. Used as a general legibility constraint.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E079", "domain":"font_weight", "year":2019, "evidence_type":"controlled recognition experiment", "claim":"Thin strokes and extreme boldness reduced recognition, while moderate additional boldness provided more benefit at smaller visual angles.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"general visual recognition mechanism", "population":"general readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"single letter recognition across visual angles and weights", "design_implication":"Use Regular as the main reading weight, offer Medium for small visual sizes, and avoid extreme body-text weights.", "source_title":"Smaller visual angles show greater benefit of letter boldness than larger visual angles", "pmid":"31421483", "doi":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2019.102904", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31421483\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"controlled experimental evidence", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific. Does not establish an exact optimal Super Dyslexia weight.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E080", "domain":"stroke_contrast", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"controlled word recognition experiment", "claim":"Typeface performance depended on the interaction between serif presence and stroke contrast rather than a simple serif versus sans-serif category rule.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"moderate_high", "causal_status":"general typography mechanism", "population":"general readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"word identification", "design_implication":"Keep the approved low-contrast sans structure, rather than relying on a categorical sans-serif claim.", "source_title":"The dispute about sans serif versus serif fonts: An interaction between the variables of serif and stroke contrast", "pmid":"35661978", "doi":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2022.103623", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35661978\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"controlled experimental evidence", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E081", "domain":"font_width", "year":2022, "evidence_type":"controlled parafoveal and peripheral recognition experiments", "claim":"Wider letter shapes improved target letter recognition and reduced neighbouring-letter misreadings relative to narrower forms in parafoveal and peripheral presentation.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"general visual recognition mechanism", "population":"general readers, not dyslexia specific", "task":"short exposure trigram recognition in parafovea and periphery", "design_implication":"Use a subtle width increase in the Reading cut, not a globally expanded display design.", "source_title":"Fonts of wider letter shapes improve letter recognition in parafovea and periphery", "pmid":"34704915", "doi":"10.1080\/00140139.2021.1991001", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34704915\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"two controlled experiments in one study", "risk_note":"Not dyslexia specific and not continuous passage reading.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null }, { "id":"E082", "domain":"typography_review", "year":2026, "evidence_type":"peer reviewed review", "claim":"Typeface legibility depends on reading scenario. The review highlights simple designs, open counters, non-condensed widths, adequate spacing and avoidance of extreme weights, while rejecting the idea of one universally most legible typeface.", "n":null, "effect_size":null, "confidence":"high", "causal_status":"evidence synthesis", "population":"general reading and visual perception literature", "task":"review of crowding, serifs, spacing, weight, width and reading scenarios", "design_implication":"Use an optical family with a beautiful Display cut and a Reading cut rather than forcing one geometry into all contexts.", "source_title":"Applying cognitive and perceptual science to typeface choices", "pmid":"40817624", "doi":"10.1080\/00140139.2025.2541255", "url":"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/40817624\/", "transfer_scope":"general reading evidence", "replication_status":"peer reviewed review", "risk_note":"General typography review, not dyslexia specific.", "audit_date":null, "identifier_integrity":null, "external_recheck":null, "website_claim_role":null } ]